Clothing Styles and Materials in the Islamic and Byzantine Empires by Mallika Yedla

          While at first, clothing styles in the Islamic and Byzantine empires were of contrasting design and served different purposes, they evolved, by way of cultural diffusion, to have strikingly similar concepts and designs. To paraphrase Kidipede (historyforkids.org), because the climate in the Islamic Empire was so hot and dry, the people needed clothes that could provide them with sun protection. So, to prevent sun burn, they covered up as much skin as possible and wore several layers of clothing. At this time, they also thought that God wanted them to be modest, so they did not let skin show and wore clothes that hid their figure. People also thought that women would be safer under several layers of clothing. My primary source for the styles of clothing in the Islamic empire is a fragmented Persian wall hanging from an exhibition in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a picture of which is below. According to The Complete History of Costume and Fashion from Ancient Egypt to the Present Day by Bronwyn Cosgrave, the Byzantines, who were Christians, also believed that God wanted them to be conservative in their clothing. The faces and hands of women were hidden, and pants were worn under the tunics of men. Both sexes wore several layers of clothing that hid their figures, so it was hard to tell men apart from women. People used embroidery techniques to depict religious scenes on their clothing. In the beginning, the Byzantine people were more toga-oriented because they were influenced by the Romans. Later on, when Justinian came to power, everyone (men and women) wore at least simple t-shaped tunics because they realized that tunics were more practical. However, higher-ranking people, like the emperor and his court officials would still wear richly decorated togas to show off. A higher-class man in the Byzantine empire would have also worn a circular cloak called a chlamys on their shoulders. The kinds of clothes one would wear in the Byzantine empire was determined by one's wealth and social status. My primary source for the styles of clothing in the Byzantine Empire is a mosaic from the sanctuary in San Vitale, Ravenna of Justinian and his entourage wearing the fashions of their time. A picture of the mosaic is below.

Fragments of a Wall Hanging with Figures in Persian Dress

According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, this wall hanging dates back to the late 6th - early 7th century. In the textile's foreground is a (presumably male) figure without a head, wearing a yellow tunic that has pearl bands around the waist, chest, cuffs, and lower hem. The figure appears to be mounted on a horse and has a scabbard slung around his waist. Behind and to the left of this main figure is a bearded man wearing a belted dark blue tunic that is patterned with hearts, as well as a tan strip of cloth tied around his head. This second figure is adjusting the battle standard that he is grasping with both hands. The topmost part of the battle standard is red and blue and has the shape of a circular flower, while the stem of the standard has symmetrical wings coming out of it's sides. The third and final figure in the textile is only part of a man. He is bearded and located behind and to the right of the figure in the foreground, wearing a blue tunic with a long, yellow, cloth tied on his head. He is holding up a wooden bow.  

Mosaic from the Sanctuary in San Vitale, Ravenna of Justinian and His Attendants

A mosaic from San Vitale, Ravenna is my primary source for Byzantine dressing styles. The mosaic is rich in color and detail and it accurately depicts the style of clothing that a court official would wear during the time of Justinian's rule. The mosaic shows Emperor Justinian (the figure fifth from the right) and his court officials wearing cloths draped toga-style over tunics and pants. Based on rank within the empire, the colors of the cloth are different for each person. Justinian is wearing a royal purple toga-style tunic with gold colored embroidery, while some of his other attendants are wearing white toga-style tunics with gold colored embroidery or a brown stripe. The group of people on the far left look more militaristic, as they are carrying spears and shields. They are wearing orange and green tunics with vests and legging-style pants. Justinian has a crown on his head and is holding a bowl. The man farthest to the right is holding a little green pot on a chain with an orange substance inside it, the official second from the right is holding a bejeweled book, and the official third from the right is holding a bejeweled cross. There is a border made of geometric shapes surrounding the mosaic. According to The Complete History of Costume and Fashion from Ancient Egypt to the Present Day by Bronwyn Cosgrave, only people with royal blood were allowed to wear the royal color purple, and the way to manufacture purple dye was a closely guarded secret.

Outline:

1.Thesis Statement: While at first, clothing styles in the Islamic and Byzantine Empires were of contrasting design and served different purposes, they evolved, by way of cultural diffusion, to have strikingly similar concepts and designs. 

2. Body Paragraph 1

     A. Topic Sentence: Religion had a major influence on the styles and designs of clothes in both               Empires.

          1. Symbolic Christian scenes were often depicted on clothes using embroidery techniques in the           Byzantine Empire.

    2. People in both the Islamic empire and Byzantine Empires thought that God wanted them to be          modest and wear layers of clothes that hid one’s figure so much that it was difficult to tell men          and women apart.

          3. Most women in the Islamic Empire had to wear veils over their face in public and cover their           hair.

    4. Women in the Byzantine Empire had to hide their face and hands in public

     B. Concluding Sentence: Religious modesty was one of the factors that made fashion concepts in         the Islamic and Byzantine Empires similar to each other.

 3. Body Paragraph 2

 A. Topic Sentence: Rich materials were used to make clothes in the Islamic and Byzantine Empires.

   1. Simpler materials such as linen and cotton were used in the Islamic Empire, along with a                   small amount of richer materials, like silk.

   2. Several rich materials such as silk, velvet, brocade, and taffeta were used in the Byzantine                 Empire, along with simpler materials, like linen and cotton.

   3. The kinds of materials one would wear depended on their economic situation and social                   status.

   4. In the Byzantine Empire, only royal people were allowed to wear purple and the way to                   make purple dye was a closely guarded secret

            5. Wearing extravagant materials was a symbol of power

     a. Silk was a material that was used often in both empires

                        I. Silk was used in both the Islamic and Byzantine Empires to fashion clothes

                        II. At first, people in the Byzantine Empire could only get silk by way of the silk road,                          because they didn’t know how to make it, and it was expensive

      III. Later on, some monks smuggled silk worms and other supplies for silk-making into                          the Byzantine Empire and taught them how to make silk

      IV. The Byzantine Empire soon had a monopoly on silk trade

 B. Concluding Sentence: While several of the materials used in the Islamic and Byzantine Empires        were different from each other, there were materials that the empires had in common with each          other.

4. Body Paragraph 3

 A. Topic Sentence: The practical aspects of clothing styles in the Islamic and Byzantine Empires were important.

        1. Climate was a factor in the Islamic empire

   a. The Islamic Empire was located in a hot desert environment

   b. People in the Islamic Empire wore layers of clothes and covered as much skin as possible in             order to protect themselves from the sun.

         2. Articles of clothing sometimes had several uses

             a. According to Kidipede, veils had several uses:

                     I. Baby slings

                    II. Blankets

                   III. Bandages

                   IV. Table cloths

                    V. Handkerchiefs

                   VI. A little tent

   b. Concluding Sentence: The practical aspects of clothing styles were a similar concept in                     the Islamic and Byzantine empires.

5. Conclusion: Though the Byzantine and Islamic Empires were starkly different from each other in most ways, one of the ways in which they were similar to each other was their clothing style.

Works Cited

Alexandra de Marly, Dianna Julia, et al. "The History of Middle Eastern and Western Dress." Britannica Encyclopedia. Britannica High, n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. <http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/106185#14022.toc>.

Anawalt, Patricia Rieff. The Worldwide History of Dress. N.p.: Thames and Hudson, 2007. Print.

Carr, Karen Eva. "Medieval Islamic Clothing." Kidipede: History for Kids. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. <http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/islam/clothing/>.

Cosgrave, Bronwyn. The Complete History of Costume & Fashion from Ancient Egypt to the Present Day. London: Octopus Publishing Group Limited, 2000. Print.

"Costume, Byzantine." Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989. 614-15. Print.

"Costume, Islamic." Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989. 616-18. Print.

Fragments of a Wall Hanging with Figures in Persian Dress. 700. Benaki Museum, Athens. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. <http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/topical-essays/posts/costume-styles#_ftn2>.

Lister, Margot. Costume: An Illustrated Survey from Ancient Times to the 20th Century. N.p.: Plays, 1972. Print.

Labatt, Annie. "The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Costume Styles." Web log post. The  Metropolitan Museum of Art - Costume Styles. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 20 June 2012. Web. 15 Dec. 2013. <http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/topical-essays/posts/costume-styles>.

Byzantine and Islamic Jewelry

The topic I chose to compare was, Islamic Jewelry and Byzantine Jewelry. Through my research I found two rings, one from each culture. These rings are very similar in construction and design. If you look at both of my primary sources, these rings are very similar. The Byzantine ring is gold, with a stone engraved with a bust of a person. The Islamic source that I found is also gold, embedded with a blue gemstone. Throughout my research I have learned that these two cultures share many similarities in their jewelry, such as both cultures used the same materials, men, children, and women all wore jewelry, and each culture valued complex detail and high quality.

The primary source I chose for the Byzantine Empire is a ring from the 5^th century, made out of gold with a bust engraved in the ring. According to Jeffrey Spier, this ring was found at Reggio Emilia in 1957. Among this ring, there was also large amount of other types of jewelry such as necklaces, earrings, and rings found, of the highest quality. This load of jewelry found belongs to an Eastern Germanic official. This ring would be considered an early Byzantine style of ring, and might have ties with Constantinople, causing great interest. “The shape is characterized by its ribbed, ‘calyx’-shaped bezel set with a gem […]” says Spier. This ring has an octangular shaped band or hoop. There is a large amount of similar rings that are known. Along in Reggio Emilia, two rings very similar to this primary source were also found; one with an unengraved nicolo, and the other with a garnet. This ring would be referred to as high quality due to the craftsmanship and neatness of the construction of this ring.

Byzantine Ring

My Islamic Primary source that I chose was also a ring. The cutter of this piece preferred color and weight, over symmetry of the stone. With this being said, the piece was made either by a less talented artist, or was made in a later phase in the development of this type of ring. According to Marilyn Jenkins and Manuel Keene, “The asymmetry of the stone has posed a problem that the goldsmith has overcome by offsetting the bezel on the shank to better center he luminous blue mass of the stone.” This ring would not be considered high quality compared to my other primary source, due to the lack of neatness and care that went into manufacturing this ring. 

Islamic Ring

Outline

1- Byzantine Jewelry points

            a. Used to express one’s status

           

            b. Byzantines loved colorful jewelry/ stones

2- Islamic Jewelry Points

            a. Used the art of Filigree

            b. Doesn't date before 15^th Century

3- Points of Comparison and Thesis

           

            a. Used similar materials like pearls, gold, silver, and precious stones.

            b. Men, women, and children wore jewelry.

            c. Jewelry was used for beauty, and to show wealth.

            d. Crescent shaped pendants were popular in both cultures.

            e. Rings were very popular, with gemstones, and inscribed metal.

            f. Each culture valued high quality and complex detail.

4. Concluding Sentence

            a. Throughout my research, I have learned that Byzantine Jewelry is very similar in many areas to Islamic Jewelry, such as they used the same materials, men, children, and women all wore jewelry, and that each culture valued complex detail and high quality.

Citations

. N.p.. Web. 18 Dec 2013. <http://www.langantiques.com/university/index.php/Byzantine_Jewelry>.

Jeffrey Spier, . <www.google.com/url?q=http://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/2%20Spier-opt-sec.pdf&sa=D&sntz=1&usg=AFQjCNFa6fPPGH48FtNQb7I3wrvImf9z4Q>.

Marilyn Jenkins, Manuel Keene. <http://books.google.com/books?id=5c9NoOBf2Q4C&pg=PA80&lpg=PA80&dq=467 AD islamic jewelry&source=bl&ots=KvlvfwBskz&sig=H_yZes1Wo_clYW4dpKVs7ucffCk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xCSqUoKlHczIkAez_oCgDw&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA

Betsy Williams, . N.p.. Web. 18 Dec 2013. <http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/topical-essays/posts/jewelry>.

  

Fashion of the Muslim empire and the Byzantine empire

Ella McCary
December 16,2013
Block E

       
      The Fashion of the ancient Byzantine and Muslim empires were alike in many ways. The people of both empires wore clothing that were similar in visual sense, social standpoint, and climate needs. I will using an ancient byzantine empire tunic, and a muslim empire ikat shawl piece to help compare the fashion of the two empires. The clothing styles of the two empires originated from different places, but they were alike in many ways.

                           

      This ancient Byzantine tunic from 660-870 A.D. found in Egypt, was a tunic that unlike others, was richly decorated. It was made by using the tapestry weaving technique with undyed wool to make a simple t-shaped design tunic. This tunic has elaborate boarders of red and green patterns, at the ends of the sleeves, and along the bottom of the tunic. This t-shaped tunic was a common styled tunic for men, and children, and there was a slightly longer tunic called a tunica for women. Most of the tunics worn by the everyday people were made using the tabby or the tapestry weaving technique.

                                     

      This ancient Tiraz fragment from an ikat shawl, was one of the many ikat shaws that were commonly worn in the Muslim empire. Tiraz means painted, woven, or embroidered, in this case this piece of the ikat shawl was painted. This particular Tiraz fragment was painted with stripes and diamond shapes with gold and blue paint. Towards the top of the tiraz fragment there is a gold design painted across the cloth. Striped textiles of Yemen were famous throughout the ancient times of the Muslim Empire. Historians are able to tell that this is a piece from an ikat shawl because of the fringe, which was common on many shawls. 

Outline

I. The clothing in the Byzantine and Muslim empires were very similar in the visual sense of style, and patterns.

      1.  Pattern, and color were two things that were very common in the clothing of the                 Byzantine and Muslim empire.

              a. People of both empires used color to express many things like status, religion,                    and to symbolize purity.

              b. Many of the cloths used in the clothing of both empires were painted or                               embroidered with pattern and color, like the Tiraz fragment of the byzantine empire.

              c. The upper class of both empires wore luxurious cloths such as silk, with colorful                 patterns throughout it.

       2. Many of the clothing styles in both empires were alike .

              a. In both empires the common shoes were sandals, boots, and slippers.

              b. Tunics were commonly worn in both empires with men and women, along with                   togas that were the other commonly worn clothing item in the Byzantine empire.

II. People in the Byzantine empire and Muslim empire wore clothing that was socially acceptable, and not violating some peoples religion.

       1. The clothing that was worn by the people of both empires were conservative to meet         social standards, and to not offend anyones religion.

              a. Women in both empires wore veils over there face for modesty, and the veils                       were useful for many other things such as a baby sling, handkerchief, and a                             bandage.

              b. Modesty for women in both empires were very important. Had to wear long                         shapeless dresses such as long tunics that went to their ankles,with high necklines               and sleeves to the wrist, and could accommodate a full pregnancy. Many tunics                     were similar to the one tunic shown above

              c. Mens garments could be shorter, for example their togas could be shorter and be              worn with pants.

III. In the Byzantine and Muslim empires climate and weather were major factors in peoples everyday lives, so there clothing needed to be suitable for certain conditions.

        1.  There were different types of clothing that people in both empires wore to cope with          the weather conditions.

                a. Veils worn by women were useful as protection from the heat, and sun.

                b. People in both empires often wore layered dresses similar to togas that help to                   ventilate.

                c. Many people wore a thwab which was a wrap dress that was well suited for hot                   desert conditions, provided sun protection, and ventilation.

The clothing worn in the Byzantine and muslim empires were similar because of the visuals of the clothes, social and religious standpoint, and climate and weather needs.

              

Works Cited

"Tiraz and Other Inscribed Textiles." Tiraz and Other Inscribed Textiles. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. <http://www.umich.edu/~kelseydb/Exhibits/Big_Textile/Tiraz_Other_Textiles.html>.

"The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Fashion and Style in Byzantium." The Metropolitan Museum of Art - Fashion and Style in Byzantium. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. <http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/topical-essays/posts/fashion>.

"Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History." Tiraz Fragment from an Ikat Shawl [Yemen] (29.179.9). N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/29.179.9>.

"Kidipede: History for Kids." Medieval Islamic Clothing. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. <http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/islam/clothing/>.

"History Of Fashion - Byzantine." History Of Fashion - Byzantine. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013. <http://fashionhistory.zeesonlinespace.net/byzantine.html>.

Comparisons between the Byzantine Empire’s currency and the Islamic Empire’s currency

• Introduction
• Thesis Statement
• I am contrasting the major points in Byzan
• Primary Source One
• http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/105949/media?assemblyId=12335 (Islamic Coinage)
• Primary Source Two
• http://school.eb.com/levels/high/article/105949/media?assemblyId=22378 (Byzantine Coinage)
• Byzantine Coinage
• What the coins are made of
• Gold
• Silver
• Electrum
• Copper
• Billon
• Islamic Coinage
• What the coins are made of
• Gold
• Silver
• Copper

I’m contrasting the major points in Byzantine currency and Islamic currency, both of the empires used coins. In my first primary source, which is an Islamic coin, it depicts  Khosrow II. In my second primary source, which is a Byzantine coin, it depicts Basil I.

In the Islamic coins we can see that there are two different materials that they made the coins out of, those two materials were gold and silver. Both types of coinage were based on weight, as most metal coins were back then. The Islamic gold coins cost more, as you would expect, than the silver coins. The gold coins also weighed more. In the next paragraph I’ll elaborate on Byzantine coinage.
The following information was taken from Britannica School High. At first, the conquering Muslims copied the coinage of their predecessors. They issued gold and copper coins that looked like the Byzantine empire’s coinage, in the western regions. The Arab governors in the eastern regions granted silver dirhams that were an imitation of late Sasanian coins.  

In the Byzantine coins we can tell that there are several types of metals that these coins are composed of. Some of these metals include: gold, silver, billon, electrum, and copper. In the Byzantine empire they had a wider variety of coin values, but some of the coins were in effect in different time periods of the empire. In the first and second period of the Byzantine empire (498 - 700 [700 - 1092]) they used gold coins, silver coins, and copper coins. In the third period (1092 - 1300) they used gold, electrum, billon, and copper. In the fourth period (1300 - 1350) they used gold, silver, billon, and copper. In the fifth period (1350 - 1453) they only used silver and copper.

The following information is from Britannica School High. Outliving all other currency in that time period, the currency of the Byzantine Empire was instated the longest. The bezant of 4.5 grams, which was based on the gold solidus, which dominated so much of European trade until the 13th century. Halves and thirds were also used until the 10th century. The purity of the gold was acknowledged until the 10th century as well. The coinage details was reflected by the religiousness of the empire.

The Byzantine coinage and the Islamic coinage are very similar, both of the coins were made out of metal, like most coins are. The western region of the Islamic empire copied some of the coinage from the Byzantine empire. The more expensive coins of both empires were made from gold, so that shows that in both of their empires gold was more rare than other materials. Silver and copper coins were also instated in both of the empires.

Works Sited:
"Britannica School." Britannica School. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013.

"Islamic Coins: Gold and Silver Coins from Different Islamic Reigns." Islamic Coins: Gold and Silver Coins from Different Islamic Reigns. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2013.

Islamic vs. Byzantine Empire Funeral Rites and Practices

Neelesh Manandhar

12/17/113

Block E History

                                       

Byzantine Sarcophagus

               

Islamic Painting

The funerary rituals and art were very important to two very distinct empires in the early middle ages, the Byzantine and Islamic Empire. My first primary source for the Byzantine Empire is a marble sarcophagus that the early Byzantines used to bury their dead. According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art the sarcophagus contains depictions of the early life of Saint Peter and Christ.  On the right side of the sarcophagus there are depictions of the scenes of life of Christ, the Entry into Jerusalem, the Multiplication of the Loaves, and the Raising of Lazarus. On the left side of the sarcophagus it portrays the legend of St. Peters, first his being arrested by Roman soldiers and then him in jail drawing water from a rock.  According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art the second artifact is a painting that depicts the legend of Ali’s burial, in it Ali’s sons, Hasan and Husain, are behind the camel carrying the casket while Ali himself leads the camel. The Islamic method and rituals of death have many contrasting elements opposing the Byzantine culture such as the directness of the Islamic rituals versus the broader rituals and traditions of the Byzantine Empire.  

                According to the Metropolitan Museum of Art sarcophagi were first used in Roman culture in the early 2^nd century, however, the Greeks and Etruscans were the primary sarcophagus builders and users and before the 2^nd century Romans used cremation instead of a sarcophagus.  Before Rome split in to Eastern and Western Rome their main system of religion was Greek they would portray myths carved into the stone, wood or marble depending on how rich they were. In Roman society decorated marble sarcophagi were considered more lavish and were reserved for the elite, while the lower classes would only be able to afford maybe a stone or wood undecorated sarcophagus. Increasingly common later on in Christian funerals was a niche tomb which was an empty decorated sarcophagus that would be placed next to or built into the wall of a church while the actual body would be buried beneath the church. According to Qantary-Med, the Eastern Orthodox religion of the Byzantine Empire has more traditions than really rules, one of their traditions is to wash the body in order to “purify” it another is to shroud the body in a linen cloth and point it towards the door. The Byzantine Christians saw death more as a very slow process, for example it was tradition to visit the grave site multiple times after their death, this is seen as the body slowly passing away from life to death. There are some stricter traditions such as during the funeral the traditional food must be kollyva which is a traditional food that is eaten during the funeral.    

According to Mission Islam the Islamic or Muslim death rites have multitude of rules and regulations that must be followed. One of the main rule in the Muslim community is there is no open show of grief over a death of someone, for example there should be no wailing or beating of the chest the only sign of grief should be crying. This is probably because in the Muslim faith they believe that the spirit has gone to a better place so there should not be any open sign of grief, also they believe that the spirit can hear you so there should not be any sign of open grief besides crying. Another one of the broader rules is that all Muslims should be buried in the ground if possible, during the Ancient Islamic empire there were ships and if a Muslim was to die at sea they would have to either wait until they reach land to bury him or attach weights to the coffin and drop it overboard. The Muslim faith, and therefore most of the Islamic empire, used the actions and teaching of Muhammad to create the rules of Muhammad which is why their rules are very strict and precise. For example one very strict rule for burying the body that Al-Islam states is the recommendation that the grave be rectangular and the one who lays the body should be clean and bare-footed and enter the grave from the feet side.  Another very specific funeral ritual stated by Mission Islam is if a relative or friend has died one must pay off their debts, this rule started when Muhammad instructed a grieving relative of a man to pay the two dinars he owed, because the prophet said this it has become a rule. Contradictory with the painting, not all Muslims actually had a coffin, instead they would just be wrapped in a shroud and placed in a grave, this corresponds with the Muslim belief that all burial should be in the ground.             

Outline

1)      Islamic(Muslim) culture was much more strict with funeral rites and practices

 a)      Time of Funeral

i)        For example when one believes they are dying they must repeat a special type of prayer

ii)       In the Christian Byzantine empire on the other hand the funeral started after this person has died

     b)   Closing of Eyes

i)        Another is that in Islam one must close the eyes because sight leaves after death

ii)       In Eastern Orthodox there is no mention of closing the eyes but it is traditionally done, the contrasting element is that it is a rule in the Muslim faith while in the Easter Orthodox faith it is simply tradition to do so

c)       Shroud

i)        In Islam the body has to be wrapped in a white shroud and should be wrapped an odd number of times

ii)       In the Eastern Orthodox faith people are actually required to be wrapped in a linen shroud  

d)       Debt Paying

i)        In Islam the Prophet himself said that if you are in close relation with the person who has died you must  pay off his debt

ii)       In Eastern Orthodox there is no such rule

2)      Islamic culture there is no open grief

a)      Shrieking

i)        In Islam no open shrieks or wailing of the person

ii)       In Eastern Orthodox some people will mutilate themselves

b)      Graveyard Visiting

i)        In the Muslim faith there are strict rules of even visiting the graveyard, before Muhammad said they could, some women were not even allowed in the graveyard

(1)    Even when in graveyard one should not show open grief ex. Wailing or shaving of the head.

ii)       In Eastern Orthodox faith anyone can visit the graveyards and there are many displays of open grief even after someone’s passing from years ago.

Conclusion Sentence

The ancient civilizations of both the Islamic and Byzantine Empire have many contrasting elements, this is because of their differences of religion and of their personal beliefs and morals.

Bibliography

"Sarcophagus with Scenes from the Lives of Saint Peter and Christ [Roman]" (1991.366) In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/1991.366. (October 2006)

"Coffin of Imam 'Ali", Folio from a Falnama (The Book of Omens) of Ja'far Al-Sadiq. 1550-1560 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, NY. The Book of Omens). N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Web. 13 Dec. 2013. <http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/451017>.

"Taharat." Al-Islam. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project, 1 Jan. 2013. Web. 16 Dec. 2013. <http://www.al-islam.org/islamic-laws-ayatullah-al-uzma-sayyid-ali-al-husaini-seestani/taharat>.

Siala, Mohamed Ebrahim. "Authentic Step by Step Illustrated Janazah Guide." Authentic Step by Step Illustrated Janazah Guide. Mission Islam, n.d. Web. 16 Dec. 2013. <http://www.missionislam.com/knowledge/janazahstepbystep.htm>.

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